The story of professional unions in Islamic civilization

It exceeded 1000 unions and witnessed the presidency of a woman and a Jew for doctors and a project for the Union of Writers in the Umayyad era Professional unions in our civilization

This article tells the story of professional unions in Islamic civilization; It monitors the most prominent features of its inception and development, and reveals the contents of its history of solid work systems, societal pluralism in membership and leadership, and a diverse industrial and social contribution. (Mukhtar Khawaja)

The right to organize and self-manage is an Arab custom that Islam has approved and strengthened. The Islamic civilizational society is not a society of individuals and individualism, but rather a society of a group and advocacy; As the Muslim falls under self-managing frameworks of compassionate social, cognitive, and professional networks, the ancient root of which is the family and the tribe, and its civilizational manifestations do not end beyond kinship relations to fraternities, sects, sects, roads, trades, and political and educational gatherings.

These social vessels were networks of support and protection, and mediators between society and the authority. Their names varied from time to time and from one geography to another, but their essence was the same. At the moment when the Prophet, peace be upon him, trampled on good soil, and even months before it; These social activities moved to their maximum significance, so civil society defined the tribal term “captain”, which represents the civil assembly before the Prophet, peace be upon him, as “the nation’s imam and the one who is the sole leader of the religious and worldly leadership” according to the expression of Imam al-Baji (d. 474 AH/1081 AD) in his book 'Selected'.

Then, as we shall see, it was a “syndicate” of the people of character, who were a group of honorable companions who were poor without families or tribes in the city’s society, and with the passage of time, moral unions appeared, such as the “Ansar Syndicate”, and some of them were even secret revolutionary organizations such as “ The Abbasid Syndicate in its first form, and some of them worked as a political pressure group, such as the Alawites Syndicate. In addition, these community unions played the role of care and defense of the interests of their members, in addition to the role of negotiating with the authorities.

in the Umayyad dynasty; The beginnings of professional unions appeared when the term “corporal” (socially and officially) moved from its purely tribal space to enter the circles with contact between society and the authority. "The Master of Poets", the idea of ​​establishing a union for Arab artistic prose writers was also proposed.

Then the situation developed to take the role of the “corporate” in this era and its clear institutional status, which will later print the life of all kinds of unions in the comprehensive and absorbing manner that this article tells, refuting the orientalist theories that link the emergence of professional unions with destructive secret movements.

One of the characteristics of guilds and fraternal groupings was that they had mobility and functional flexibility; When personal need arises, it is a social and symbiotic vessel, it is the hour of authoritarian grievances, a revolutionary protest gathering, and in the face of the invaders it is a jihadist struggle battalion, and in times of famine and crises, it is a support and rescue front for society in all its categories.

It is - at all times - an educational institute for the principles and ethics of the profession, and a supervisory and judicial institution that corrects the behavior of its members and disciplines those who are negligent. It was accompanied in all of this by legislative efforts that framed professional practices in a manner that preserves their quality and the interests of their producers and consumers. It also considered giving union association a status comparable to kinship solidarity if She did not overcome it, and Islamic jurists presented ideas that were ahead of its time, so she established the first professional and union legal code.

And besides all that; The professional syndicates took upon themselves to mix the spirit of professional gathering with emotional and religious impulses, through honoring the industry leaders, and their members receiving the secrets of the union with the professional “bond” and the literal “licence,” in a clear imitation of the traditions of knowledge groups in receiving the “industries” of science with evidence. And scientific and legal licenses, which are an attempt to upgrade these professions to be at the level of “legitimacy” of jurisprudence and hadith scientific unions.

And because most of the professional unions are groupings for the pension and the public benefit; It did not know any discrimination on the basis of religion, class, or even gender, rather its door was open to all by affiliation and election, and its purely professional condition remained related to validity and competence only, which means that non-Muslims were common to grant them the right to membership in professional unions and even to lead what was One of them has a serious and prestigious position, such as the Medical Syndicate; We will also see in this article that tells the story of professional unions in Islamic civilization and their precedence over the most prominent union traditions prevailing in our time.

Subjective experience

The development of guilds and craft groups in Islamic civilization came within a complex social, cultural and economic context. Either it arose from Roman/Byzantine or Persian influences, or was established by the efforts of the Ismaili Shiite political organizations, especially the Qarmatians; This is a claim that orientalists such as Louis Massignon (d. 1382 AH / 1962 AD) and Bernard Lewis (d. 1439 AH / 2018 AD), assuming the association of the unions with the intellectual and religious foundations adopted by the Qarmati movement, and also with the turbulent economic conditions that employed them to recruit the workforce, but they did not provide convincing evidence to support those opinions.

These Orientalist views were clearly presented in the articles published by Dr. Abdel Aziz Al-Douri (d. 1431 AH / 2010 AD), both those translated by the Orientalist Bernard Lewis (four articles entitled: “Islamic Unions”; published in the Egyptian “Al-Risala” magazine in issues: 355 -356-357-362); Or the one that he wrote and summed up what preceded it in this field (two articles entitled: “The Islamic Varieties and Crafts”; they were published in the Egyptian “Al-Risala” magazine within the two issues: 983-984).

In his two articles, Al-Douri provided general interpretations of these absolute orientalist statements, but they were not - despite their importance - enough to deepen the engagement with them and to show the predominance of allegations in them over evidence, which is what we will try here to present a historical approach in which we believe that it includes an added value in the discussion of these controversial issue.

If Massignon's case - as Bernard Lewis quotes him in his first article - is based on the fact that "it was the Ismaili movement that created the Islamic sects ( unions) and gave them the special advantage that they have preserved until now"; It is clear that the relationship of some craftsmen with the Ismaili call - especially its Qarmatian branch - was characterized by individualism and did not take a clear collective formula that qualified it to establish union entities of the size and complexity known historically, especially since these individuals were living in the very marginal "black" areas in southern Iraq.

Perhaps the best way to refute the orientalist idea of ​​Roman/Byzantine or Persian influence and Qarmatian or Ismaili origin is to explain the emergence of craft and professional guilds in Islam; It is to place the phenomenon of professional unions in its historical context by monitoring their various manifestations socially, cognitively and professionally, and to indicate the stations of their societal development and movement between the tribe, the state, and civil society (cognitive and industrial).

The return to the development of the history of the term "Captain / Syndicate" - as well as its various counterparts such as the corporal / clairvoyant, sheikh, chief and lieutenant colonel - shows that the idea of ​​having leaders or supervisors of social groups and groups - who look after their interests, settle their disputes and represent them before others - is an old idea that preceded the existence of movement organizations Shiite Ismailis.

It was known, for example, in the language of the Arabs that “the captain is the plural of a captain, and he is like the general over the people before them, who knows their news and searches for their conditions, that is, searches” for them; According to the linguist Jamal al-Din Ibn Manzur al-Ansari (d. 711 AH / 1311 AD) in his lexicon 'Lisan al-Arab'.

The first applications of this idea go back to the Meccan era of the history of Islam, as is known in the events of the Prophet’s biography from the story of the captains of the second “Oath of Aqaba” in the year 13 BC AH / 622 AH, who “are twelve captains headed by Asaad bin Zurara (d. 1 AH / 622 AD), (lost) the Prophet, peace be upon him, searched for Asaad over the captains”; According to Al-Dhahabi (d. 748 AH / 1347 AD) in 'Sir Al-Alam Al-Nubala'.

Prophetic Rooting

In the civil covenant we met with more solid manifestations of the idea of ​​a community union, as in the Prophetic hadith “that the Messenger of God, peace and blessings be upon him, said when the Muslims authorized him to free the captives of Hawazin: I do not know which of you who did, who did not give permission, so return until your sergeants raise your order to us, so he returned The people were told by their officers, so they went back to the Messenger of God, peace be upon him, and told him that the people had been kind ( they agreed) and had given permission.” (Sahih Bukhari).

Rather, the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, appointed himself captain for his uncles, Banu al-Najjar, who were a group of the Ansar, when their captain, Asaad bin Zurara, died. Imam al-Dhahabi narrates - in “Sir of the Nobles’ Flags” - that “Bani al-Najjar came to him and said: Our captain Asaad died, so we searched for us, O Messenger of God! He said: “I am your captain.”

And in this hadith is an indication that the tribes saw the presence of the captain as an integral part of their social entity, and therefore the great companion Abu Huraira (d. 59 AH / 670 CE) was also described as the “captain of the people of the character” as an independent category because he was their “commander when they migrated”; according to Imam al-Nawawi. (d. 677 AH / 1278 AD) in his book 'Tahdhib al-Asma wa al-Lughat'.

During the conquest era, specifically in the caliphate of Omar al-Faruq (d. 23 AH / 645 CE) - may God be pleased with him - we find a clear appearance of captains / sergeants in the organization of the state, especially the military institution and the organizations of the conquest armies in Iraq, the Levant and Egypt.

This is summarized by the orientalist article "Arif" in the Orientalist book 'Summary of the Islamic Encyclopedia' issued by the Dutch Brill Foundation. She says that the corporal "is a term given to those who hold certain civil or military positions, on the basis of competence in matters that are based on custom, and not on knowledge of religious matters that characterize the world."

The source added that "the corporal at the time of the Rashidun and the Umayyads used to collect taxes from the tribes and hand them over to the 'musaddiq' ( the collector), who is appointed by the caliph, and from the era of Umar - and after that - we find many references to the corporal's job with regard to the military organization of the state and the cities, [The soldiers of Kufa were divided after the battle of al-Qadisiyyah into units (arafs), each headed by a 'corporate'.

in the Umayyad dynasty; A new transformation occurred when the term "corporal" (socially and officially) moved from its purely tribal space to enter circles with contact between society and authority. For example, during the era of Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan (d. 60 AH / 681 AD) - may God be pleased with him - a funny use of this term in the sector Such as the affairs of mosques, and he is the "master of the muezzins". Thus, the role of the "corporal" in this era takes on its clear institutional status, which will later characterize the life of unions of all kinds.

Umayyad institutionalization

This is evident in the fact that “most of the details about the duties of the corporal go back to the era of Muawiyah only. Their names and their families. More than that he was responsible for security within his Sibyl, as well as his responsibilities for collecting support funds and arbitrating disputes between members of the Sibyl." ; According to the book 'Summary of the Islamic Encyclopedia'.

The same source confirms that in the Umayyad era, "among the civil jobs whose owner bore the name 'corporate' in the first two centuries of migration ( the seventh and eighth AD) a special official responsible for the interests of orphans and illegitimate children, as well as we read about a corporal for dhimmis." .

It is clear that what is meant here is what Ibn Asaker al-Dimashqi (d. 571 AH / 1175 AD) mentioned - in the 'History of Baghdad' - that the judge of Egypt for the Umayyads, Abd al-Rahman ibn Muawiyah ibn Hudayj (d. 95 AH / 715 AD) was "the first judge to look into orphans' money and included a corporal Every people has the money of the orphans of that tribe, and he wrote a book with that and he had it and he declared it and testified about it, and the matter was done on that” starting from the moment he was appointed as a judge in the year 86 AH / 706 AD!!

In the literary field, too, the "corporate of poets" appeared at the end of the Umayyad era during the caliphate of Marwan bin Muhammad (d. 132 AH / 751 AD); He had "a master of poets who tells ( tests) their poems, so he improves for their benefactors, takes care of their evildoers, and removes for them the corrupt"; According to Ibn Asaker in 'The History of Damascus'.

It is clear that this “corporal” had his responsibilities in line with the essence of the powers of the “captain” in any specialized functional group, such as maintaining the status of workmanship, rewarding the distinguished in its products, raising the level of the weak among its members, achieving an acceptable level of solidarity and interdependence among them, and representing them collectively before the authority and its official bodies.

It is not unlikely that a syndicate was established for writers of artistic and literary prose next to the “Poets Syndicate”; It was stated in the letter that the Dean of Arabic writers, Abdul Hamid bin Yahya al-Katib (d. 132 AH / 751 AD) wrote to his fellow writers, to make their constitution in their profession, which became an “industry” at the time:

“And love one another for the sake of God Almighty in your craft, and be kind to it, for it is the trait of the people of grace and nobility from your predecessors, and if time informs of a man among you, then be sympathetic to him and be sympathetic to him until his condition returns to him. his experience and his old knowledge"; According to Bahaa al-Din al-Baghdadi (d. 562 AH / 1167 AD) in 'The Hamdouniyah Ticket'.

Therefore, the historian of Arabic literature, Allama Shawqi Dhaif (d. 1426 AH / 2005 AD) - in 'History of Arabic Literature' - saw that this text is evidence that Abdul Hamid "requests writers to form among them something like a syndicate in our time. time from them and help him until he returns to the luxury he used to have.”

It is a conclusion that takes its significance from the fact that the era of Abd al-Hamid - who was the chief writer of the last caliphs of the Umayyad caliphs - was the one in which the "Poets' Syndicate" was established, so it is not far from him to seek for his fellow writers to have a counterpart that brings them together and takes care of their interests. and over all; The Writers’ Syndicate actually saw the light in later ages under the title: “The Syndicate of the Generals,” meaning the holders of pens from the clerks of government departments, and they had a president called “the Syndicate of the pilgrims,” according to what we find in various texts - about the news of this job and the captains who assumed it - in sources History of the Mamluk period.

A technical leap

in the economic sector; We find in the first Umayyad era the emergence of the term “market master” as it will come, then the Abbasid state - at the beginning of its rule - opened the door to the natural formation of craft unions when it granted the people of every craft a spatial space in which their shops are adjacent, which gives them the opportunity to daily deliberate in the affairs of the profession and its interests and organize Its relationship to society and power!

The historian Ibn Adhari al-Marrakchi (d. 695 AH / 1295 AD) tells us - in the 'Al-Bayan al-Mughrib' - that the governor of the Islamic West of the Abbasids, Yazid bin Hatim al-Muhallabi (d. 170 AH / 786 AD) was "a good conductor, so he came to Ifriqiya ( Tunisia) and repaired it, arranged the walls of Kairouan, and made Every industry is in its place.” From the markets of the city in the year 155 AH / 773 AD.

The matter here takes its own significance from the fact that it was customary at the time in official designations to associate the governmental supervisory position with the word “owner” not with the word “corporal”, as in “police owner” (security director), and “information owner” (intelligence employee, agent or director). , and "the owner of the torment" (the prison executioner).

at the level of societal organization; The first union gathering with an Arab identity and explicit in its syndicalist tendency was officially called the Syndicate. Since the second century AH / eighth century AD, public societal entities emerged that the tribal union took on a more institutional dimension, as in the “Ansar Syndicate” that unites their bellies.

We find the first mention of this union by the historian Ibn Yunus Al-Sadafi Al-Masry (d. 347 AH / 958 AD), in his translation of the scholar and poet Saeed bin Katheer al-Ansari (d. 226 AH / 841 AD), who said that he was “one of those following the “Ansar Syndicate” and swearing against them”, i.e. It distributes their government financial allocations to them.

In the same century, the Hashemite Syndicate appeared, which had its first seed with the establishment of the Council of Captains of Bani Abbas, which took over the arrangements for their revolution against the Umayyads. The ninth century A.D. As a result of the terrible political division between the two major components of the Hashemite House, the history books began to talk about the “Abbasid Syndicate,” the “Talibi Syndicate,” the “Alawites Syndicate,” or the “Ashraf Syndicate.”

Despite the intense hostility that characterized the relationship between the Abbasids and their Alawi brothers as a result of their struggle for the throne of the caliphate; The matter has settled on the juxtaposition of the two institutions since the beginnings of the fourth century AH / 10 AD, as indicated by the translation of the historian Ibn Aybak al-Safadi (d. 764 AH / 1363 AD) - in “Al-Wafi with Deaths” - by Muhammad bin Ahmed bin Abdul Samad al-Hashimi, known as Ibn Tumar (d. 320 AH / 922 AD). ), who is "the guardian of the Abbasid and Talib Syndicate all during the days of al-Muqtadir (d. 320 AH / 922 AD)".

Since then, "the Student Union has continued to contribute to the Abbasid Caliphate in positions, crowding them into the planets of processions, and involving them in every contract and solution"; According to Safadi in 'A'ayan al-Asr'. Each of the two unions had branches in a number of the cities of the Islamic East affiliated with the Central Syndicate in the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad. The one who held its comprehensive position was called “the Captain of the Captains,” and was appointed by the Abbasid Caliph.

Among the most famous of those who took this position: Muhammad bin Abi Tammam Ali bin Al-Hassan Al-Zainabi (d. 426 AH/1036 AD), as well as his famous modernist son Trad Al-Zainabi (d. 491 AH/1098AD). It seems that this union became famous later in the Mamluk state - and later eras - as the "Ashraf Syndicate".

A historical transformation

and this union had a prominent legal and official status as one of the honorary institutions in the Islamic state, which was reflected in the investigations of political jurisprudence books since the fifth century AH/11 AD. It came in 'Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniya' of Imam Al-Mawardi (d. 450 AH/1059 CE) an explanation of how to be appointed in it and a statement of its powers.

According to al-Mawardi, It was one of the most important responsibilities she assumed with regard to their relationship with society and the state: “to stop them ( the Hashemite household) from committing sins, and to prevent them from violating taboos,” and to “prevent them from dominating the public for their honour,” and to “act on their behalf in claiming their public rights.” And to “correct ( punish) those who lapses from among them in matters other than the limits,” as well as “taking into account their endowment ( their financial endowments) by preserving its assets and developing its branches.”

It is clear that we find in these powers a clear similarity with much of what was later settled in the traditions of the professional unions of caring for the morals of its members, and punishing those who break the norms of the profession and those who violate the profession in a way that preserves the reputation of its members, as well as protecting their material interests, and representing them before the official authorities.

Since the third century AH / ninth century AD; Syndicate organizations began to go beyond their socio-political framework to reach the circles of crafts and industries, which were stimulated by developments in the economic and urban fields to organize themselves, and to adopt forms of factional bloc that preserve for industry its professional norms and its practitioners their economic rights, and to provide the authority with a level of control and control for those professions and industries as service facilities that affect their performance in the interests of society.

The link between the authority and the masters of trades (the private sector) revolved between two official bodies: the Judiciary Institution and the Hisbah Commission, knowing that Al-Douri sees - in the first of his two previously mentioned articles - that “the first indication of the function of the Muhtasib goes back to the caliphate of Al-Mu’tadid (Al-Abbasid d. 289 AH / 902 AD). Who ruled during 279-289 AH/892-902AD.

Shawki Dhaif - in 'The History of Arabic Literature' - states that the economic and social developments that took place in the first half of this century resulted in "many classes of craftsmen or professionals arose at that time, and each craft had its own owners. [to a degree that reaches ] Exact specialization, and there is no doubt that this is what led to the emergence in the Arab world of the ancient idea of ​​unions for craftsmen and artisans, although at that time it was no more than the role of simple upbringing.

And this clear transformation - which this era witnessed - is what made the orientalist Massignon “give… an opinion that is more acceptable - in his research in the ‘Encyclopedia of Social Sciences’ - showing that [craft] unions arose in Islamic countries in the ninth century AD ( the third century AD). Hijri)"; According to what is reported by the league.

Massignon supported in that identification of the beginning of the emergence of craft guilds his colleague Bernard Lewis - in his previous articles - when he monitored in this century “an apparent development in the so-called Islamic types, and then we find them of a type that cannot be explained by influence or Byzantine heritage,” because “these guilds It was of a completely different kind from the unions that existed before the Islamic conquest!!

However, the flaw in the historical analysis of these two researchers is that they made the emergence of unions an event at the end of this century, in order for them to claim the Ismaili/Qarmati role in them, while it is clear that their history at the beginning of the century is correct due to its consistency with the movement of events, and its consistency with the development of union models. From its purely tribal dimension to its purely artistic institutional setting.

Legal theorizing

What reinforces this point of view is that we find at the end of the second century AH / eighth century AD a clear jurisprudential theorization of union solidarity to the point of placing it above relative solidarity, such as that presented by the Hanafi imam Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaibani (d. 189 AH/805 AD) - in his book 'The Origin' '- When he expanded the circle of tribal solidarity related to compensation for the damages of crimes - which is called jurisprudence as "Al-Aqila", which is an insurance body for damage - to include the owners of the same job sector (the Diwan / Administration).

Rather, he stated that the functional/professional relationship here may take precedence over the relationship in lineage and participation in the domicile, as long as the beneficiary of it (the offender) does not work among his family and in his original city. This is union solidarity in its purest and most complete form, as we know it today among the owners of the same professional sector.

Imam al-Shaibani says: “And the people of Egypt ( city) do not understand ( guarantee/ insure) about the people of Egypt, [Q] the people of Basra do not understand about the people of Kufa because their mind is on the Diwan ( government administration/functional sector), so the bureaus The people of Kufa are sensible about the people of their masses and villages ( their farmers), and if two brothers had a father and a mother, one of whom had his office in Kufa and the other with his office in Basra, neither of them could reason about his owner, and the people of his office were rational about him.

And if a people from the people of Khorasan had the same Diwan, differing in their lineage Some of them committed a felony, the people of his flag ( his job/profession) and the people of his leadership understood him, even though others are closer to him in lineage. If the people of his banner and his leadership were few, the imam ( the owner of the authority) included with them whoever he saw from the people of the Diwan until he made them one sane, and the people of the Diwan interact without the people of lineage.”

Since at least the fifth century AH / 11th AD; Unions in Fatimid Egypt had a clearer organization and more specific responsibilities than previous eras. The historian al-Maqrizi (d. 845 AH / 1441 AD) informs us - in the “Hanafa’s Teaching” - that “in every market of Egypt the masters of every craftsmanship were in charge of their affairs.” Relevancy of their profession to all its members.

Al-Maqrizi mentioned that in the year 517 AH / 1123 AD, “the order of [Fatimi minister] al-Ma’mun (Al-Bata’hi d. 519 AH / 1125 AD) went out to the governors in Egypt and Cairo to bring the sergeants of the water-skinners, and to oblige the living ( workers) from them in Cairo to attend them whenever the need arises, day and night.” The Ayyubids inherited this pattern from the Fatimids, so they kept it to be included in the compilations of the Hisbah Commission, such as the book of the Al-Muhtasib Al-Shafi’i Ibn Nasr Al-Shaizari (d. 590 AH / 1194 AD): “The End of the Adorable Rank in the Honorable Hesba” in which it deals with the relationship between the Muhtasib and the master of each profession.

In the Mamluk era, the economic role of Egypt in the region increased, which led to “the flourishing of the manufacture of clothes, mattresses, furniture, leather, ornaments, metals and colored glass. A group of craftsmen is a special union that looks into their affairs between themselves and themselves, as well as between them and the people on the one hand and the government on the other.” According to Shawky Deif in 'History of Arabic Literature'.

Formal framing

and the great development of the union situation in Mamluk Egypt resulted in the adoption by its authorities of the official appointment of the heads of five professional syndicates and their inclusion among job holders, as very important persons appointed by an official decision of a certain form, perhaps due to the accuracy, importance and connection of these professions to people’s lives, and the severity of the damage caused by Take over those who don't deserve it to exercise it.

Al-Qalqashindi (d. 821 AH / 1418 AD) - in 'Subh al-A'sha' - mentions a group of "titles of employers from among the people of industries"; He enumerates five of them: "the architect of buildings", "the chief of physicians", "the chief of the kahalans ( ophthalmologists)", and "the chief of the surgeons ( doctors of surgery and orthopedics)". Then he explains their tasks in order; He says that the architect of the buildings “takes charge of arranging the buildings, estimating them, and judging the owners of their industries.” As for the chief physician, he “judges the group of doctors, and authorizes them to treat,” he likens the heads of the Kahleen and the surgeons.

The word “govern” - which al-Qalqashandi mentions in conjunction with every union position - indicates that the license to practice the profession, the withdrawal of the license and the penalties are actually entrusted to the head of the sect; Thus, the head of the union in this case exercises his powers just as the heads of the unions do today towards the members of his union.

Therefore, it was stipulated that the person who would test the skill of the craftsmen should be a reference in its origins and traditions, and they considered “from the setback of time to take the test of craftsmen who are not skilled in their craft”; According to Raghib Al-Isfahani in 'Lectures of Writers'.

This license was also subject to the examination and testing of the applicant's abilities, and the approval of his abilities and treatment methods for the generally accepted methods. The appointment letter included the recommendation of the head of the sect to look into “the matter of his sect and find out their conditions”; According to Al-Qalqashandi, who lists the qualities that were required in each of those five unions.

This diversity in union institutions on the social and professional level was accompanied by a parallel in the knowledge level. The “Jurists’ Syndicate” was the organizational framework expressing that union awareness in the sectarian scene, and since the second century AH / the eighth century AD, the term “Captain of Jurists” appeared, which was closer - in its connotation - to the concept of “scientific deanship”. The first person to see us from his campaign is the modern jurist Amr bin Ali al-Baghdadi (d. before 198 AH / 814 AD), who was "known as the 'Captain of Jurists'"; According to al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463 AH/1071 AD) in 'The History of Baghdad'.

Then this title continued in this form and is mentioned in the translations of scholars - in other than any country or sect of jurisprudence - until at least the ninth century AH / 15 AD, but it began to move with its connotation from just referring to the “scientific deanship” to take a load that brings him closer to the concept of “scientific union” as Known today in professors' associations and teachers' unions.

Therefore, Abdul Aziz Al-Douri noted - in his two articles previously mentioned - that “the spirit of agglomeration and harmony in high-end scientific institutions or schools made students and professors form a union, and they have some common decrees with [professional] unions, such as: special dress (robe) and leave, and the similarity of grades from Pupil to teacher to teacher to teacher. Bernard Lewis also pointed out - in his aforementioned articles - that "in the Fatimid era. the union of professors and students that made up the great university. arose: Al-Azhar."

Knowledge links

and historical texts indicating the transformation of the Jurists Syndicate from the model of the scientific deanship to the institutional union status; What was reported by Imam al-Sakhawi (d. 902 AH / 1497 AD) when he translated - in 'The Brilliant Light' - by the jurist Abd al-Ghaffar bin Suleiman al-Talwani al-Qahiri (d. after 852 AH / 1448 AD) and said that he "worked as the captain of the Jurists' Syndicate in the castle."

Let us understand from the mention of the “Castle” - which is the center of governance in the Mamluk state - here that this “Captain of Jurisprudents” was the link between them and the center of power, and thus this term has become referred to a “job” defining its work and its financial return on its owner, who is distinguished by the rest of the jurists.

This is confirmed by Al-Minhaji Al-Asyouti (d. 880 AH / 1475 AD) - in his book 'Jawahir al-Aqood' - he says in one of the doctrinal endowments documents: "The condition of the waqif is that it be given to each one of the. forty jurists in each month as such, even if it is a stipulation. Of bread, meat, food, and other things he mentioned, then he mentions the 'Captain of Jurists' and his known money ( salary) and what he has to do to separate the four and collect them to their box after the supplication, and spread the teacher's rug and the students' rugs and raise them."

In addition to the jurisprudential syndicalism; We observe an early presence of the concept of “the generalist” in the literature of Sufism since the fourth century AH/10 AD, as we find them employing it in the stories of the encounters of some of their sheikhs with the “Sufi master” who has a central place in their teachings. As he tells us on the authority of one of them, Imam al-Muhaddith Ibn Asaker in 'The History of Damascus'.

Then that symbolic presence develops into a practical tradition, so we find Imam Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani (d. 852 AH / 1448 AD) translating - in 'Anbaa Al-Ghamr' - by Al-Hasan bin Abdullah Al-Sayrafi Al-Masry (d. 780 AH / 1378AD) and he states that "he was the captain of the poor ( Sufis)" , as translated by Sheikh Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Omar al-Maymouni al-Shafi’i (d. 841 AH / 1437 AD), and he tells us that “his father was a captain [Sufis] of the zawiya known as al-Khashabiyya” in Cairo.

Among the jurists and Sufis, the tradition of syndicalism passed through to the circles of scholars engaged in the Prophet’s hadith. Among them was Sharaf al-Din Dawood bin Ahmed bin Sunqur al-Muqaddadi (d. 690 AH / 1289 AD), who was described by the modern imam Alam al-Din al-Barzali al-Ishbili (d. 739 AH / 1338 AD) - in his book known as 'The History of al-Barzali' - as "the righteous Sheikh al-Muhaddith. He was a captain modernizers".

Al-Barzali also translated the Sufi Muhaddith Shams al-Din Khalil ibn Badran al-Halabi (d. 695 AH / 1294 AD) and stated that he "was the captain of the hadithers". And it was stated in the book 'Deaths' by Ibn Rafi' al-Salami (d. 774 AH / 1372 AD) that Jamal al-Din Kassab bin Muhammad al-Mashhadi al-Hanbali (d. 740 AH / 1339 AD) was the "Captain of the Modernists in the Al-Hakim Mosque" in Cairo.

Remarkable diversity

The installation of a market official for the handicraft groups is an old idea in Islamic civilization that accompanied it in its first civil steps; In Kufa - in the days of its judge Shurayh bin Al-Harith Al-Kindi (d. 73 AH / 693 AD) - the position of “market leader” is mentioned in a very specialized manner, as we read - according to Judge Wakee’ bin Hayyan al-Dhabi (d. 306 AH / 918 AD) in his book “Akhbar al-Qadas” Nicknames such as: "Chicken Market Master" and "Hook Market Chief ( cats)"!

and later; The “Mark of the Market” has acquired a clearer legal status. Imam Abu Bakr Al-Jassas Al-Razi (d. 370 AH / 981 AD) informs us - in his book 'Al-Fusoul Fi al-Osoul' - that the concept of "Sunnah" according to Imam Malik bin Anas (d. 179 AH / 795 CE) matches what he does “Market corporal Suleiman bin Bilal (d. 172 AH / 788 AD)”, this corporal was a trustworthy updater, and it appears that his actions were an embodiment of the prophetic “work of the people of Medina” and their consensus, and it is a strong legislative origin for Imam Malik.

If these texts indicate the ancient position of “market keeper” among Muslims, The oldest corporal of a specific profession not related to the world of markets is the “commander of the muezzins” in the Amr ibn al-Aas mosque in Egypt, and we will narrate later from the judge, the historian al-Maqrizi - in 'Prayers and Attibar' - some news of this corporal.

Imam al-Dhahabi - in the History of Islam - provides us with what indicates that the “divination of the muezzins” in Egypt continued through the centuries until his era at least, but it took the title of “presidency” the most formal in its significance; It was translated by Al-Hassan bin Wassaf (d. 344 AH/955AD), and he stated that he was "the chief of the muezzins in Egypt Then he introduced ( became a corporal) to them after him, Bakir bin Afia (d. after 344 AH/955AD)."

Al-Dhahabi also translated Amin al-Din Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Mu'alih (d. 693 AH / 1294 AD) and said that he was "the chief of the muezzins in the new mosque in Egypt." And the same job was in the mosques of the Levant, as evidenced by what was mentioned in the translation of the hadeeth Abu Ishaq Burhan al-Din al-Wani (d. 735 AH / 1334 AD) that he was the “chief of the muezzins at the Umayyad Mosque” in Damascus; According to Ibn Aybak al-Safadi in his book 'Nukt al-Humayyan'.

Imam al-Tabari (d. 310 AH / 922 AD) - in his history - narrates a story in which the “chief builders” in Baghdad is mentioned, and that its founder, the Abbasid Caliph Abu Jaafar al-Mansur (d. 158 AH / 776 AD) formed an order for the expenses of building the Caliphate Palace “so he sent to the chief builder and invited him ' He asked him what it was like.

The traditions of establishing professional references extend to some technical circles within the administrative apparatus of some Islamic countries, despite what may be in these circles of explicit violations of the teachings of Islam. Including that he was among the staff of the Abbasid Caliphate, a "head of astrologers".

It was reported in the news that the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu’taz Billah (d. 255 AH / 869 AD) addressed Abu Ma’shar al-Balkhi, the astrologer (d. 272 ​​AH / 885 AD), saying: “I made you the “chief of astrologers” in the house of the caliphate, and decided for him a salary of “one hundred dinars ( today 20 thousand). approximately US dollars) per month"; According to Judge al-Muhsin al-Tanukhi (d. 384 AH/995 AD) in 'Nashwar al-Mahazarah'.

Institutional excellence

Starting at the end of the same century; We come across the efforts made by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tadid Billah (d. 278 AH / 891 AD) to develop craftsmanship and cognitive education, in a project that was not accomplished; Qudamah bin Jaafar (d. 337 AH / 948 AD) - in his book 'Al-Kharaj and the Writing Industry' - narrates that al-Mu'tadid by God wanted to build "houses, dwellings and chapels. In each place, the heads of every industry and sect, from all doctrines of theoretical and practical sciences, are arranged, and livelihoods flow over him." Sunnis, so that whoever chooses a master’s science or industry means what he chooses, and he takes it from him!!

As for the Islamic West region; Andalusia knew early on the traditions of professional unions, so the job of “masons’ master” of engineers became famous at least until the end of the sixth century AH / 12 AD. Al-Mann in the Imamate '- about the construction of the Seville Mosque in 555 AH / 1160 AD, and that it was attended by "Sheikh of Sergeants Ahmed bin Bassa (d. after 555 AH / 1160 AD) and his companions, the masters of builders from the people of Seville, and with them the masters of builders from the people of Marrakesh and the city of Fez."

Among the manifestations of the long-standing union work in Tunisia and its institutional excellence until today; Since at least the ninth century AH / the fifteenth century AD, there has been a position of “secretary of trustees”, which today corresponds to the position of the Secretary-General of a professional federation, and the authorities recognized him as a representative of his syndicate branches before their official departments.

Al-Hafiz Al-Sakhawi mentioned - in “The Brilliant Light” - that the Muhaddith jurist Muhammad bin Muhammad Ibn Azzouz Al-Tunisi (d. 873 AH / 1468 AD) “was the trustee of the trustees in Tunisia, meaning that merchants and the likes refer to him in customary cases, and he judges between them even by imprisonment and beatings.”

It is strange that the leadership of professions was not limited to delicate artistic crafts, but rather its early tradition infiltrated the so-called “marginal professions” in the cities; It seems that this came to meet the social need of the marginalized group, providing it with a set of different guarantees, or earning it a kind of psychological affiliation and practical training.

The sweepers in Baghdad had a corporal mentioned by Al-Jahiz (d. 255 AH/869 AD) - in his book 'The Animal' - when he tells us that his name is "Nawfal, the chief of the sweepers, and he has every sweeper in Karkh" west of Baghdad. The groups of beggars also had a corporal; Al-Tanukhi narrates - in 'Nashwar al-Mahazar' - that the beggars of Baghdad had "a sheikh who was easier ( finance) and his condition became so great that he dispensed with sharpening ( beggary), so he taught them what to do" in their "craft".

Morocco also knew the allocation of unions to a number of these “marginal” craft groups, including the category of porters who had special organizational statuses that we will discuss later. For example, in some cities of Morocco, their number reached 300 porters between the tenth and 14th centuries AH/16th and twentieth AD. It will also be said that there was a union of porters in Egypt since at least the Mamluk era.

Although the scope is not wide enough to review the historical data that the researcher can obtain about the professional syndicates in our heritage sources; We cannot but prove titles with great significance to the rooting and diversity of this civilizational phenomenon in our history, all of which relate to syndicate models that we did not discuss here.

Among these are the names of the captains of the following professions: “Sheikh of money-changers”, “chief of the robbers”, “Sheikh of tanners”, “the sergeant of the jewelers”, “the sergeant of the sweepers/Sheikh of the sweepers”, “the sheikh of the dealers”, “the chief of the butchers”, “the trustee of the pharmacists”, "Head of Physicians in the Egyptian and Levantine Countries", "Head of the Chicken and Goose Breeding Industry", "The Pirate Captains Syndicate", "The Sabean Syndicate".

And also for wit; The parasites established a “syndicate” in the third century AH / ninth century AD, its first position was in Basra, and it was taken over by “a custodian of the parasites [he] would justify them ( take care of them), clothe them, guide them to business and share with them” the money they collect; According to Imam al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463 AH / 1071 AD) in his book 'At-Tatfeel and Akhbar al-Tufailien', which tells us that he was their body sergeant in Baghdad, "Bannan al-Tufayli" (d. about 253 AH/867 CE).

Tight organization

with the exception of separate texts - in books of calculation, translations and history - that dealt with the powers of the professional captain and his relationship with the members of his industry, or those that were exposed to the history of the fatwa groups from books that dated them or travel blogs whose owners had contact with those groups; We hardly find significant works that reveal to us the details of the life and internal structure of the craft organisations. In addition, “most of the documents and all the news that we have about the internal system of the classes ( guilds) date back to the period after the Mughal era”; According to Bernard Lewis in his articles on Islamic unions.

Based on the available historical data; It can be said that professional and professional groups have adopted an organizational hierarchy within them since ancient times. The “master” in the craftsmen was equivalent to what is known today in their customs as “the teacher,” and his wages in major works differed from the wages of the less skilled or those who worked under him; According to what Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi tells us in his talk about the construction of Baghdad.

It seems that since the sixth century AH / 12 AD, the title “Professor” has been used to talk about the distinguished in handicrafts such as carpentry, as is understood from the words of al-Dhahabi in his translation of Muayyad al-Din Muhammad bin Abdul Karim al-Harthi (d. .

The affiliation with the "teacher" in the profession began to take on an important character since at least the seventh century AH / 13 CE; Ibn al-Mimar al-Baghdadi al-Hanbali (d. 642 AH / 1244 AD) mentions it - in his book 'The Fatwa' - adding it to wearing a rag and pulling the boys, and attributing to him the "shad al-thaqaq", which he defines as "affiliation in the industry to whoever belongs to it" its practitioner.

Strange rituals appeared in the field of fatwa, such as drinking the blood of two allies in it, and therefore it was stipulated that these practices were prohibited by Ibn al-Mimar al-Hanbali, as well as Sheikh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 728 AH / 1328 AD) - in 'Majmoo' al-Fatwas' - by saying that "Tighten the middle for a certain person to belong to him. of the innovations of ignorance."

And in a later era; The professional syndicates in Damascus knew the creation of the “Sheikhs’ Committee”, which is closer to a professional “union federation”, and it assumed many tasks, including the trial of violators of the usual professional regulations. Perhaps its creation was one of the manifestations of the influence of these unions on the Sufi traditions, among which was the position of "Sheikh of the Sheikhs", under which the religious leadership includes the majority of the Sufi orders.

The traveler Ibn Battuta (d. 779 AH / 1377 AD) stated that in Isfahan the precursor to every industry was called “kilo”; Describing the accuracy of their organization and comparing them with the “brotherly boys” unions in Anatolia in their social services, he says: “The people of every industry present themselves with a large number of them who call him “chloas”, and [among them] the group consists of single young men ( singles), and these groups are proud of themselves. and ( hosts) each other, showing what they were able to ( wealth), celebrating in food and other great feasts!!

And speaking of the structure of the internal crafts in the later ages; In his two previously mentioned articles, Abd al-Aziz al-Duri, citing Turkish sources such as the book al-Fatwa or 'Futtnameh' by the Turkish traveler Evliya Chalabi (d. 1095 AH / 1684 AD) - stated that in Anatolia, "the composition of the craft was from: 'Sheikh' (captain) and Jawish ( Corporal ) and the middle (the professor), then the 'shakard' or the beginner' in learning the craft. Al-Douri notes that Chalabi enumerated “all kinds, their shops and sheikhs. which are 1001 items ( crafts).”

Strict qualifications and

also according to the league; In some Turkish cities, the captain - who may have been called "my brother Baba" - was in charge of managing the affairs of the craft, and was assisted by an executive council called "the longa" consisting of five elected professors from among the craftsmen, and under these ranks varying according to age, starting from the novice to the "caliph".

There is a higher council for all trades, consisting of the heads of each trade, which is a comprehensive union or a general union of trade unions in our sense today, and they have a general chief who was called in some Anatolian cities “Kayalerbash” (the chief of chiefs). Kahyalarbash was known among the industrialists in Damascus as the "Sheikh of the Sheikhs".

As for the position of “Sheikh of the Craft” itself, it was necessary for the one who assumed it - even by heredity - to have the approval of the people of the craft, with many qualities such as excellence in mastering the craft, and good morals. It shall not be replaced unless what necessitates it, such as a breach of the ethics of workmanship or reputation, and his appointment by the "Sheikh of Sheikhs" requires a special celebration. As for the craftsmen, covenants were taken on them to keep the secrets of the craftsmanship and to be ethical in it.

And Olya Chalabi tells - according to the league - that the craft unions used to organize an annual parade in which "the procession begins at dawn and continues throughout the day until sunset, and the items ( unions) pass through the Istanbul judge's house - because he has the authority ( guardianship of trades) - to inspect all Weights, measures, and items. Then the items go to their stores and markets, and every trade and craft stops for three days on the occasion of the parade.

In a pioneering institutional custom for its counterparts in our time; We find that some crafts in Morocco used to elect their “secretary” (captain) in each region for a mission not exceeding six months. Then these sub-secretaries elect the “grand emir recognized by the government as head of their union,” and he communicates with them regarding the work of the union’s branches throughout the country; According to the book 'Summary of the Islamic Encyclopedia' issued by the Dutch "Brill" Foundation.

As for the relationship between craft unions and Sufi orders and their impact on the formation of internal union norms; It is known that the Sufi groups tried - almost since the fifth century AH / the 10th century AD - to legitimize their own behavioral traditions (such as the rose and the rag/the patchwork) by placing “isnads” that would make them derive from the “permissibility” of the men of the first generation in Islam from the Companions and followers, thus seeking to integrate them into the fields of Islamic knowledge received with chain of transmission, such as the sciences of the Qur’an and hadith, the narratives of jurisprudence, language and literature.

This mystical endeavor was reinforced by the emergence of the phenomenon of "sectarian union" at an early age - as we have seen - among the people of jurisprudential sects, and the moral support it produced (in the sectarian dispute) and material (with the benefits of doctrinal endowments) among the sons of the same sect, as the craft and professional unions did in the past. And recently between scientific federations and associations.

Therefore, the Sufis, for example, “have decided that the muraqqa’ah ( the rag) can only be worn from the hand of a sheikh ( Ijazah), and they made for it a continuous chain of transmission that is all false and impossible.” According to the modernist preacher Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 597 AH / 1201 AD) in his book 'Talbees Iblis'. This chain of transmission has several paths, the majority of which are attributed to the Rightly Guided Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib (d. 40 AH / 661 AD) through the great followers of Hassan al-Basri (d. 110 AH / 729 AD).

Symbolic

traditions and a tradition of Sufi groups in their actions, and with the association of unions with Sufism in an era and environments in which even all groups prevailed; The groups of crafts and professions - almost since the seventh century AH / 12 AD - have sought to integrate their "practical" industries into the Islamic civilization - which can be described as the civilization of chain of transmission and permission - by borrowing the concepts of "support" and "licensing" that are prevalent in the "scientific" industries, and encouraged them to do so. Muslims consider all knowledge in their cultural life as “industries”, so they used to talk about “the craftsmanship/industry of hadith” and “the craftsmanship/industry of jurisprudence” and the like in the manners of language and literature.

To complement their imitation of the Sufi groups; For the owners of craftsmen put various chains of narrators for their crafts that make them received from the Rashidun Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib - may God be pleased with him - by the great companion Salman al-Farsi (d. 33 AH / 655 AD), may God be pleased with him, but it is a false chain of narrators - like the Sufi rag according to most hadith scholars - nor It is nothing more than an imaginary and symbolic link aimed at deepening the connection with the general knowledge scene, and instilling respect for handicrafts in the hearts of societies that many of the elite of their sons have long "disdained" handicrafts.

And if some jurists linked many of these industries to the people of heresy and whims, then most jurists exonerated the majority of its people from that generalized linkage. They praised “the owners of vile crafts - if their way of religion is good - such as sweepers, tanners and scavengers. because of the Almighty’s saying: {Indeed, the most honorable of you with God is the one who is the most pious of you} (Al-Hujurat / verse: 13), and because these industries are permissible; According to Imam Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (d. 476 AH/1083 AD) in his book 'Al-Muhadhab fi Fiqh al-Imam al-Shafi'i'.

The scholars also rejected the tendency of social contempt for these handicrafts and their affiliates, considering that “exaltation in religion … is not due to honor, money and high positions, but to the idle poor who are followers of the messengers, and the meanness of their crafts does not harm them if their conduct in religion improves.” According to Imam Ala’ al-Din Ali bin Muhammad al-Shihi known as al-Khazen (d. 741 AH / 1340 AD) in his interpretation of “Lab al-Ta’weel”.

Indeed, many scholars were known by their lineage of their crafts and professions, and some of them took the position of the professional syndicate for their industry for a long time, as happened to the hadith of Shihab al-Din Ahmed bin Abi Talib al-Salihi al-Hajjar known as Ibn al-Shinah (d. 730 AH / 1330 AD), which Imam Ibn Katheer (d. 776 AH / 1374 AD) - in 'The Beginning and the End' - it is "the Musnad of the Great Sheikh He lived for a period of Muqaddam ( Captain) of the stoners for about twenty-five years!!

And in the book 'Ansab' by Imam Abu Saad al-Sam'ani al-Marwazi (d. 562 AH / 1166 AD) translations of hundreds of scientists attributed to their professions and crafts, and a testimony to the existence of those who classified early - during the third AH / ninth century AD - in the biographies of scientists working in these professions.

When Al-Samani introduced Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ishaq Al-Sa’di Al-Harawi Al-Shafi’i (d. about 285 AH/898 AD); He said about him: “I saw in his compilation a good book in Bukhara that I think had never been done before. Al-Samani mentioned that Al-Harawi mentioned in this book among the scholars who dealt in the perfume trade alone, “a large group, close to fifty souls.”

The researcher Abdul Baset bin Yusuf Al-Gharib also prepared a study that he issued entitled: “The Anger at Those Who Attributed to a Profession or a Craft of Scientists,” in which he cited translations of about 1,500 scholars distributed over about 400 trades and professions from which they earned.

Among the works authored on the biography of scholars working in trades and professions: The book attributed to the historian Ibn al-Fawti al-Shaibani (d. 723 AH / 1323 AD) entitled: “Bada’i al-Tahwih in the Remembrance of the Attributes of Scientists to Trades and Crafts.” Indeed, the Andalusian minister Abu Al-Hassan Al-Khuza’i (d. 789 AH / 1387 AD) authored his book with expressive significance in this context: “Audioly indications of what was in the era of the Messenger of God of crafts, crafts and legal works!!”

Civilizational affiliation

along the lines of Sufism, perhaps influenced by it, after its tendency penetrated strongly into the craft guilds; The concept of "fatwa", which expresses the qualities of masculinity and magnanimity - according to the definition of Ibn al-Mimar al-Hanbali in his book 'Fatwa' - was merged into these craft unions, so the name "brother boys" appeared in Anatolia, whose name was derived from calling each other by the word "brother / brother".

Ibn Battuta - in his journey - documented many manifestations of their generosity and hospitality to people, especially strangers, and stated that their group is made up of craftsmen and single youth who gather in their corners every afternoon where they sleep. Asr to their leader ( their captain) with what they collected for them” from the money of their industries.

Ibn Battuta tells that when he met the district judge, he told him about the trade union status of one of them, and he described him as “one of the elders of the brotherly boys, and he is one of the Kharazin and has the same generosity, and his companions are about two hundred of the people of industries who have presented it to themselves, and they built a corner for hospitality and what meets them during the day they spend it at night.” .

This is the first clear report on the integration of craftsmen and industrialists into the fatwa system of Sufi origin; Which indicates the role of the ideas of asceticism and mysticism in mixing the morals of the fatwa with the returns of craft groups.

A complete exposition of the list of industries and their imagined "professional chains of transmission" - which also includes a clear link between some Sufi tariqa ideas and craft traditions and usually ends with the companion Salman al-Farsi on the authority of Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib - came in the book "Ammunitions and Antiques in Bir ( Sheikh / Sheikhs). Crafts and Crafts”, which is by an unknown oriental author of the tenth century AH / 16 AD.

As mentioned above; Those asanids were a kind of civilized settlement made by the collective mind of these craftsmen to solve issues related to racial diversity and societal contempt for certain races or businesses, and to link items and crafts with “sacred” origins no less important than any other important branch of knowledge, which gives each craft a kind of self-respect Its members encounter the social contempt that they may have suffered in certain hurricanes or hurricanes.

The funny thing is that these symbolic chains of transmission link the origins of the letters to Kufa and Basra, and add martyrdom in the way of God - or the killing at the hands of Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf Al-Thaqafi (d. 95 AH / 715 AD) - to some scholars such as Kumail bin Ziyad Al-Nakh’i (d. 84 AH / 704 AD), whom they call “Sheikh classifiers"; This implicitly indicates an attempt to root the resistance of craftsmen and professionals to injustice and oppressors, as their collective mind reproduced the story and history of each craft and integrated it into the context of the fatwa to give it clear and powerful moral assets.

This in turn turned into a social and moral lever in the post-Baghdad era in the hands of the Mongols in 656 AH / 1258 AD, especially in Asia Minor (today Turkey), which remained turbulent between the Seljuk sovereignty, the Mongol attacks and the Byzantine influence; According to Al-Douri in his articles referred to. This moral role will continue from the seventh century AH/13 AD until the extinction of traditional unions in the modern era following the colonial attack.

Multiple roles

The professional and craft unions have assigned their members responsibilities and roles, some social and some economic, but these roles have remained under the authority’s gaze and are controlled - to some extent - by means of the “Hisbah” apparatus, whose president may interfere in the process of selecting the captain, especially when a dispute arises between the candidates for the position union in a profession.

Among the facts of that intervention is what happened in the year 895 AH / 1490 AD in Cairo, when Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Ketbi, known as Ibn Abi al-Fath (d. after 895 AH / 1490 AD) ran “to be the chief of the Qabbaniya, so they all joined forces with him, along with the Muhtasib and the group of his gate ( his administration), so the Sultan brought him In the presence of judges and sheikhs, he demonstrated in his craft what testifies to his singularity and praised him, and the dispute continued until he defeated them with his ingenuity and defeated him with their immorality and obscenity and the fact that the reward was with them, and had it not been for their knowledge of the king’s turn to him, there would have been no good in him.” According to El-Sakhawi in 'Brilliant Light'.

Although no union could beat the governments of that era; These unions were required to perform specific social and economic roles, whether for the benefit of the members, the state, or the society in general. This is a level no less than the influence that unions exercise in our world today, and it is noted that this role has grown with the dissolution of the centralization of the caliphate, and even the weakness of the autonomous states from it.

On the one hand, duties related to workmanship and profession; The master of each profession was supposed to be fully aware of its reality, details of its affairs and the conditions of its members, and to provide solutions to the government regarding its problems.

Perhaps one of the first facts of this is what was stated in Al-Maqrizi’s “Al-Moawa’iz wa’l-I’tibar” that the governor of Egypt, the great companion, Maslama bin Makhlad Al-Ansari (d. 62 AH / 682 AD), may God be pleased with him, built minarets for the mosque of Amr Ibn Al-Aas in Fustat, “and he performed I’tikaf in it and heard the sounds of the bells ( church bells). ) high, so he complained about this to Sharhabeel bin Amer (al-Muradit after 62 AH / 682 AD), and he was in the days of the mandate of the chief of the muezzins.” He found a solution for him to call the call to prayer from midnight to dawn, and forbid the owners of churches from striking the bells at the time of the call to prayer, so he applied those Suggestions and problem solved.

The captain may be called to testify regarding his profession and the conduct of the captains’ responsibilities. One of the oldest news of this is what happened in the middle of the first century AH / seventh century AD in a case that took place in Kufa in the “Suq al-Sanaer” and “Chicken Market”; When the judge summoned Shuraih bin Al-Harith Al-Kindi (d. 73 AH / 693 AD) the two market officers, and asked them about the reality of the problem, “So the custodian of the market hit the hooks, so Shuraih [the two unions] gathered the two markets for him”; According to Judge Wakee' al-Dhabi in his book 'Akhbar al-Qada'.

The corporal may be entrusted with organizing work on major projects, and technical supervision of public constructions and controlling their budgets may be included in the work of the “market sheikh”; The architecture of a mosque in Damascus in the year 892 AH / 1487 AD was entrusted to “Sheikh of Souk al-Dahhah Ahmad, nicknamed Hatim”; According to the phrase of the historian Ibn Tulun (d. 953 AH / 1546 AD) in 'The Fruit of the Khalan'. Thus, the "market sheikh" turned into something like a municipal official or the head of a neighborhood in some modern urban organizations.

The people of each profession were also responsible for the quality of their industry within the supervisory and professional ethical role that was entrusted to the corporal/captain in order to protect consumers, and the capacity of the corporal’s powers and the effectiveness of his role depended on the limits of the “al-Mohtaseb” powers. market.

Therefore, it is stated in the “Majma’ of Arts” of the Al-Fawti historian that the Muhtasib Kamal al-Din Muhammad ibn Muhammad (died before 723 AH / 1323 AD) “was presenting to bakers, cooks and confectioners to clean their machines and refine their tools, and to the owners of crafts in the markets by fulfilling the trust in what they do, and he takes the butchers to They choose their sacrifices, they sharpen their knives ( their knives) and their plates, and shopkeepers take by paving ( paving) their paths and cleaning them, and so on.

Specific powers

In the Levant - which inherited many of the traditions of the Fatimid regime in supervising professions and trades - the Ayyubid state allowed the official codification of the relationship of the Corporal with the Muhtasib, as we find it in the book 'Reaching the Cute Rank in the Honorable Hesba' by Al-Muhtasib Al-Shafi'i Ibn Nasr Al-Shaizari, who It states that one of the powers of the Muhtasib is “to make for the people of every profession a corporal who is in the interest of its people.”

He justified this by the fact that the industries are complex and contain hidden details that the Muhtasib may not be able to know the truth about in order to judge them; Al-Shaizari says: “Since the knowledge of market actions ( market and craftspeople) did not fall within the capacity of the al-Muhtasib, it is permissible for him to make for the people of every craft a knowledgeable person from the good of its people, an expert in their industry, insight into their fraud and deception, famous for trust and honesty.”

As for the duties of a captain or corporal; He should be “supervising their conditions, and informing him ( informing the Muhtasib) of their news, of what goods and merchandise are brought to their market, of the prices they settle on, and other reasons that the Muhtasib needs to know.” Thus, the industrial master is responsible for maintaining the ethics of the profession, ensuring transparency in professional practices, controlling prices, goods and commodities within his jurisdiction, and reporting news from the people of his industry to the guardian authority.

In economic terms; Trade and industrial unions had their impact on controlling prices, evaluating and valuing goods, and the jurists - especially those who said that the pricing of different goods and services was permissible - accepted the advice of men of different professions, so they linked this to the condition of consulting the “objects of the market” i.e. notables and sheikhs, and arriving at an acceptable profit for sellers. And licenses suitable for the general public.

In this regard, the Maliki jurist Muhammad Ibn Yunus al-Siqali (d. 451 AH/1060 AD) says in 'The Collector of Issues of the Mudawana': "The just imam should - if he wants to price something of that - to collect the 'faces of the market' of that thing, and bring others [of experts] memorialization ( affirmation) of their sincerity. And asks them about the movement of trade and buying and selling to set fair rules for pricing.

Al-Saqli adds that when the seller violates the price increase of what has been agreed upon, the person responsible for market affairs has to “discipline the aggressor and take him out of the market, and reveals ( inspects) the imam ( the authority) at all times over the price. We mentioned."

The heads of the profession may argue with others in defense of their professions in front of others, as happened when Ibn Taymiyyah argued with astrologers; He said about that in “Majmoo’ Al-Fatwas”: “And their chiefs came to me, and I showed the corruption of their industry with the rational evidence that they admit to being true. [So] one of them said to me: By God, we tell a hundred lies until we believe a word!!” This is similar to the tradition of revising professional practices in the professional scientific forums that are held today.

As for settling disputes, prosecuting violators of the profession, and issuing penalties against them, and everything related to the issues of the profession such as commercial fraud and resolving disputes between the craftsmen themselves and between them and the state; They are traditions that gradually developed. Perhaps the oldest reference to this authority is that of Al-Shayziri in his book 'Nahayat al-Rawba', where he indicates that one of the duties of the corporal is to assist the Muhtasib in combating fraud, so he says: their custodian."

Judicial Jobs

As for the Nuqaba of Qaysariyyat - which are shopping malls where luxury goods were sold - they were responsible for the security aspect of the market; A theft took place in 734 AH / 1333 AD by agreement between a thief, a locksmith and a market guard, and it caused a disaster in “Caesarea Jharks” in Cairo, where many merchants lost large amounts of fabrics and money, and “the governor of Cairo obliged the “corporate of Caesarea Jharks” not to live there by a merchant. to guarantee it.” According to al-Maqrizi in his book 'Al-Suluk'.

Perhaps the government obligated the captain of a profession to investigate the behavior of his union members and their dealings with those who commit certain crimes; The governor of Cairo, the Mamluk prince Seif al-Din Qadadar (d. 730 AH/1330 AD) in the year 724 AH/1324 AD, became strict in chasing the drinkers and manufacturers of alcohol in the homes, so he “brought the “corporal of porters” and obligated him to bring whoever was carrying grapes, and when they came with him, he tempted them ( he wrote) Asma’ Who buys grapes and the locations of their dwellings.” Thus, those who bring grapes to make wines from them in their homes were determined by a direct investigation in which the porters were employed through their captain.

Trials were held for violators of various professions, and there were degrees of punishment that the captain was usually allowed to inflict on violators, including “ta’zir” which is a discretionary physical or financial penalty. When a violation occurs, such as commercial fraud in the products of a craft, the offender is tried by the captain of that craft. Among the historical facts in this is what happened in the year 894 AH / 1489 AD of the punishment of the Sheikh of the “Al-Jawkhayin Market” in Damascus for one of his profession’s members “for deceiving him in the sale of woven cloth ( woolen fabric)”; According to Ibn Tulun.

We have already mentioned that the “secretary of trustees” in Tunisia had the right to punish with “imprisonment and beatings” anyone who violated commercial norms in the country. This benefits the multiple levels of jurisdiction; What was within the circle of breaching the norms of the profession was for the trustee to rule on it, and what was related to the jurisprudential ruling is entrusted to the judiciary to decide on its disputes.

Unions developed in Tunisia, and a council for commercial professions was established in it, which can be described as an integrated chamber of commerce with a union function; The powers of the Professional Council of Ten were expanded and some of the works of the Muhtasib were referred to it.

In this regard, the scholar Muhammad Kurd Ali (d. 1373 AH / 1953 AD) says - in an article of his entitled “News and Ideas” published in issue 61 of the “Al-Muqtab” magazine - that “some of the works of al-Muhtasib in Tunisia were placed in the hands of the Council of Ten Notables,” most of whose members were from Those of Andalusian origins, "and to them the matter rests in separating the cases of forgery in the chawashia ( making hats/caps) and supervising its work that it is well dyed, and the captain of the chawashia craft was under their command."

He also entered into the competencies of the Council of Ten, "considering the fraud of goods, and it judges the good and the unemployed in the event of a difference between the seller and the buyer, through the mediation of the Secretary of Traders", but its members receive a salary, and the representative of the city of Djerba in Tunisia - who is one of its Jews - Only attend when discussing business issues only.

This means that it was common for non-Muslims to be granted the right to membership in professional syndicates, as was previously said about the existence of a “dhimmis” since the first two centuries of migration; In fact, they headed some unions of high standing, such as the Doctors’ Syndicate. One example of this is that the doctor “Fath al-Din Fathallah bin Mutasim bin Nafis al-Israeli ( the Jew) al-Daoudi (d. 814 AH / 1411 AD)  was the chief physician” in Egypt; According to the historian Zain al-Din al-Malti (d. 920 AH / 1514 AD) in his book 'Nil al-Amal'.

This vast religious pluralism in Islamic professional syndicates prompted the Orientalist Bernard Lewis to admit that “the third advantage in Islamic sects ( syndicates) is that they include individuals from different sects. While European sects have excluded even Christians of different sects from their ranks, we find Islamic sects open to Jews and Christians. And the Muslim alike, while some Islamic sects find that the non-Muslim majority dominates.”

A unique precedent

that complements the angles of exclusivity in that Islamic union pluralism is that it was not comprehensive only for societal classes and religious sects, but also extended to include both genders, men and women, at the highest level in the union hierarchy; So we met with women union leaders in other than professional and professional fields, including a field such as singing, the union of which may have been taken over by a woman who was called “the guarantor of the singers” ( singers); According to Imam Ibn al-Hajj al-Maliki (d. 737 AH / 1337 AD) in his book 'The Entry'.

Also in the medical field is the example of the Egyptian doctor Fatima bint Shihab al-Din Ibn al-Sayegh al-Hanafi (she died after 1036 AH / 1627 AD), who was so skilled in medicine that her father held the position of “Sheikh of Medicine at Dar al-Shifa al-Mansouri and the Head of Physicians,” and upon his death in 1036 AH. / 1627 AD, because this Fatima “taken in his place the Sheikhdom of Medicine”; According to Dr. Ahmed Issa (d. 1365 AH / 1945 AD) in his book 'The History of Bimaristans in Islam'.

The authority may intervene to resolve a dispute between a union sergeant and one of those working in his craft, and Cairo accounts for the oldest such dispute between a sergeant of bakers and a bread seller. So the judge ordered the dismissal ( dismissal) of that corporal, and to fine what he took from the baker; According to al-Maqrizi in 'Ita'az al-Hanafa'.

The Anatolian region witnessed important additions in the powers of the unions during the Ottoman era. As the head of the craft was entrusted with the tasks that were common in the Mamluk era of administrative and financial matters and resolving conflicts, and Abdul Aziz Al-Douri says - in his two articles referred to, quoting various Turkish sources dating back to the thirteenth century AH / 19 AD - that the captains of craftsmen became in some regions of Anatolia supervising the Promotion of members from one rank to another, and the captain was in a position that also allowed him to present issues to the competent authorities in the government.

It seems that some unions were sometimes narrowed by the increase in the number of people involved in their industry, and sought to close the door without that, monopolizing their professional field; This is what the jurists confronted forcefully, so they stipulated that “it is not permissible for the people of some trades and crafts to prevent them from working in their craft while being proficient in it or wanting to learn it”; According to Imam Ibn Abidin al-Dimashqi al-Hanafi (d. 1252 AH / 1836 AD) in 'Red al-Muhtar ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar'.

And the organizational procedures for the captains of the various craft sects in Damascus developed; The highest, unifying position of its captains, called “Sheikh of Sheikhs” ( head of the Federation of Trade Unions), was inherited within the Al-Ajlani family of Damascus until the end of the thirteenth century AH / 19 AD; According to Al-Douri, who mentions that this family "appoints the sheikhs for more than two hundred trades, orders, terminates, clears, resolves every issue and resolves every problem." This "sheikh of sheikhs" had "the power to imprison or flog the union's men," and one of the manifestations of his power is that "it was not possible to dismiss or replace him," perhaps because he "relyed. on a hereditary endowment."

A societal contribution

The political and social role of professional unions has emerged prominently in several eras. We recall from the manifestations of this the participation of its affiliates in jihad as volunteers within the regular army, which is confirmed by Al-Douri - in his two previously mentioned articles - by saying that “the jihad in Anatolia and the war on the Islamic-Byzantine borders was the best motive for mixing the traditions of the fatwa with mystical spiritual principles and the traditions of the craft.”

The unions - represented by the brotherly youth groups in Anatolia and the industrialists’ groups in Isfahan and Shiraz in Persia - played important roles in protecting social security, sheltering strangers, creating a positive climate in which crafts lived and developed, ensuring moral security, youthfulness and chivalry, maintaining public behavior, and protecting the elements of a disciplined social life.

Therefore, the craft unions contributed to resisting the oppression and the encroachments of the men of power and the evil of society, especially the Anatolian unions whom Ibn Battuta describes, saying: “There is no one in the world like them that is more festive ( taking care) of strangers than people, and hasten to feed them food and fulfill their needs, and taking at the hands of darkness and killing The condition ( the police) and the evil people who follow them.”

Some masters of trades also took the professional strike as a means of resisting the grievances that might inflict them, which clearly indicates their membership in unions that unify their positions until their demands are fulfilled. Al-Ragheb al-Isfahani (d. 502 AH/1108 AD) tells us - in the 'Lectures of the Literary' - that "the pilgrims ( barbers) in Qom ( in Iran) at times got angry, so they gathered and left the country until the feeling of its people grew long, and they had to go out to them and kiss The land is in their hands, and they swore to them not to harm them and not to call them [derogatory nicknames], so they returned “to their places of profession in Medina!!”

Among the manifestations of the social role of professional unions is that the members of the craft unions were a social lever that ensured the protection and relief of the poor and was able to reduce societal grievances, and this can be understood in the context of the chaos after the Mongol and Timurid attacks in the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries AH / 13th, 14th and 15th centuries AD.

In this era; Syndicates assumed various duties that included something similar to health and education insurance, and the phenomenon of establishing financial revenue funds from rent allowances, endowments, wills, member contributions and donations emerged. The book 'Summary of the Islamic Encyclopedia' states that the porters in Morocco collected their earnings collectively, and at the end of the week the sum collected in the fund was distributed to all of them.

In the two articles referred to, Abdul Aziz Al-Douri provides a list of the accounts of the cotton growers in the city of Syros in Anatolia during the twelfth century AH / 18 AD, and the social solidarity between the owners of the same profession, as well as care for the poor of their city. We note that these expenses include health and educational aspects, and even compensation for losses resulting from accidents, and the disbursement of retirement and social security pensions to those who are unable to craft, in addition to the disbursement of alms to the community in the name of union members.